![]() ![]() ![]() Despite accumulating criticism, pointing to the unknown origin and composition of the adventitious carbon, this is by far the most commonly used method today for all types of samples, not necessarily electrically insulating. One approach, proposed in the early days of XPS, employs the C 1s spectra of an adventitious carbon layer, which is present on all surfaces exposed to air. The accuracy of chemical-state determination relies, however, on a trustworthy calibration of the binding energy (BE) scale, which is a nontrivial task due to the lack of an internal BE reference. ![]() With more than 9000 papers published annually, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is an indispensable technique in modern surface and materials science for the determination of chemical bonding. ![]()
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